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Although some of them, including English Bicknor on the Wye and Awre on the Severn, were settled by 1086, others emerged later from assarts in the Forest woodland and waste: at Newland a church founded c. 1200 served a large tract with many dispersed parts, Flaxley parish was created asthe endowment of a Cistercian abbey in the mid 12th century, and Hewelsfield was reconstituted about then. Clearance of woodland was reversed in Staunton in the early 19th century when much farmland was planted with timber. At StBriavels, overlooking the Wye, a royal castle became in the early Middle Ages the centre for enforcing the forest law, which until 1668 obtained in much of the parochial land. The apparatus of officers and courts headed by the castle's constable was later supplemented when the crown's administration was re-directed to maintaining the royal woodland for shipbuilding timber and to combating the pressures on it of commoning, mining, ironworking, and squatting.  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The volume describes how the Saxon borough, formed in the shell of Roman colonia at a crossing of the river Severn, became in the early Middle Ages a royal administrative centre, military base, and seat of religious foundations; it exam-ines the variety of economic functions which sustained the city throughout the medieval and early modern periods, with at different times ironworking, clothmaking, the trade on the river, pinmaking, market trade, and banking coming to the fore; and it traces the efforts of the townspeople to gain control of their own affairs and recounts how the system of government which they secured from the Crown in 1483 hardened into oligarchy in the 16th century, fuelled politi-cal dissension in the 17th, and proved surprisingly effective as a force for city improvement in the 18th. 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There, where the cloth-mills clustered thickly along the valleys, a closely knit society of clothier families played the leading role while humbler cloth-workers swelled the population, establishing new villages around the commons of Bisley and Minchinhampton and elsewhere in the area. In the early 19th century the factory system concentrated the cloth industry in fewer and larger mills but new industries like iron-founding, stick-making, and silk-throwing moved in, and local industry continued to expand and diversify in the 20th century. Painswick and Minchinhampton, medieval market towns, were eventually outstripped by the newer town of Stroud which ex-panded considerably in the 19th century under the influence of the railway and a new system of turnpike roads built along the valleys. Thenonconformist churches, particularly at Nailsworth, were important, and in the 19th century Woodchester became a centre of Roman Catholicism and Bisley a stronghold of the Oxford Movement. 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