The various perspectives of the field of personality provide the organizing framework for this text. Each perspective is presented in two chapters and is introduced by a prologue that describes the assumptions and themes of the perspective.
Part One: An introduction 1
1 WHAT IS PERSONALITY
PSYCHOLOGY? 3
Defining Personality 3
Why Use Personality as a Concept? 4
A Working Definition 5
Two Fundamental Themes in Personality Psychology 5
Theory in Personality Psychology 6
What Do Theories Do? 6
Evaluating Theories:The Role of Research 7
What Else Makes a Theory Good? 8
Perspectives On Personality 9
Groupings among Theories 9
How Distinct Are the Perspectives? 10
Another Kind of Perspective 11
Organization Within Chapters 11
Assessment 12
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 12
Summary 12
2 METHODS IN THE STUDY OF
PERSONALITY 14
Gathering Information 14
Sources: Observe Yourself and Observe Others 14
Seeking Depth: Case Studies 15
Seeking Generality: Studies of Many People 16
Establishing Relationships Among Variables 17
Correlation between Variables 18
Two Kinds of Significance 20
Causality and a Limitation on Inference 20
Search for Causality: Experimental Research 21
Recognizing Types of Study 24
What Kind of Research Is Best? 24
Multifactor Studies 25
ReadingFigures from Multifactor Research 26
Summary 27
3 ISSUES IN PERSONALITY
ASSESSMENT 28
Sources of Information 28
Reliability of Measurement 30
Internal Consistency 30
Inter-Rater Reliability 31
Stability across Time 32
Validity of Measurement 32
Construct Validity 33
Criterion Validity 34
Convergent Validity 34
Discriminant Validity 35
Face Validity 35
Culture and Validity 36
Response Sets and Loss of Validity 36
Two Rationales Behind The Development of Assessment Devices 37
Rational, or Theoretical,Approach 38
Empirical Approaches 38
Better Assessment: A Never-Ending Search 39
Summary 40
Part Two: The Dispositional Perspective:
Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 43
4 TYPES, TRAITS, AND
INTERACTIONISM 45
Types and Traits 45
Nomothetic and Idiographic Views of Traits 46
What Traits Matter? 46
A Key Tool: Factor Analysis 47
Let Reality Reveal Itself: Cattell's Approach 49
Start from a Theory: Eysenck's Approach 50
Another Theoretical Starting Point:The Interpersonal Circle 52
The Five-Factor Model:The Basic
Dimensions of Personality? 52
What Are the Five Factors? 53
Reflections of the Five Factors in Behavior 55
The Five-Factor Model in Relation to Earlier Models 57
Some Additional Variations and Some Cautions 58
Are Superordinate Traits the Best Level to Use? 59
Traits, Situations, and Interactionism 59
Is Behavior Actually Traitlike? 59
Situationism 60
Interactionism 60
Individual Differences in Consistency 61
Other Aspects of Interactionism 62
Was the Problem Ever Really as Bad as It Seemed? 62
Interactionism Becomes A New View of Traits: Context-Dependent Expression of Personality 63
Fitting the Pieces Together:Views of Traits and Behavior 64
Assessment 65
Comparing Individuals: Personality Profiles 65
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 66
The Five-Factor Model and Personality Disorders 67
Interactionism in Behavior Problems 68
Behavior Change 68
Trait Psychology: Problems and Prospects 68
Summary 70
5 NEEDS AND MOTIVES 72
Basic Theoretical Elements 73
Needs 73
Motives 74
Press 74
Needs, Motives, and Personality 75
MotiveStatesand Motive Dispositions 75
Murray's System of Needs 76
Measuring Motives:The Thematic Apperception Test 76
Studies of Specific Dispositional Needs 78
Need for Achievement 78
Need for Power 80
Need for Affiliation 82
Need for Intimacy 83
Patterned Needs: inhibited Power Motive 84
Implicit and Self-Attributed Motives 85
Incentive Value 85
Implicit Motives Are Different From Self-Attributed Motives 86
Approach and Avoidance Motives 87
Approach and Avoidance in Other Motives 88
The Methods of Personology 89
Assessment 89
Motives and the Five-Factor Trait Model 91
Traits and Motives as Distinct and Complementary 91
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 92
Need for Power and Alcohol Abuse 92
Focusing On and Changing Motivation 93
Need and Motive Theories: Problems and Prospects 94
Summary 95
Part Three: The Biological Perspective:
Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 99
6 INHERITANCE, EVOLUTION, AND
PERSONALITY 101
Determining The Role of Inheritance in Personality 102
Twin Study Method 103
Adoption Research 104
What Personality Qualities Are Inherited?105
Temperaments:Activity, Sociability, and Emotionality 105
Other Views of Temperaments 106
Inheritance of Traits 107
Temperaments and the Five-Factor Model 108
Genetics of Other Qualities: How Distinct Are They? 108
Inheritance and Sexual Orientation 109
Molecular Genetics and New Sources of Evidence 110
Environmental Effects 111
The Size of Environmental Influences 111
The Nature of Environmental Influences 112
Evolution and Human Behavior 112
Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology 113
Genetic Similarity and Attraction 115
Mate Selection and Competition for Mates 116
Mate Retention and Other Issues 118
Aggression and the Young Male Syndrome 119
Assessment 120
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 121
Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder 121
Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior 122
Evolution and Problems in Behavior 123
Behavior Change: How Much Is Possible? 123
Inheritance and Evolution: Problems and Prospects 124
Summary 126
7 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND
PERSONALITY 128
Eysenck: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Brain Functions 129
Extraversion and Cortical Arousal 129
Neuroticism and Emotional Arousal 130
Incentive Approach System 130
Behavioral Approach,Activation, Engagement, or Facilitation 131
More Issues in Approach 132
Neurotransmitters and the Approach System 132
Behavioral Avoidance, or Withdrawal, System 134
A Revised View of BIS Function 135
Neurotransmitters and the Avoidance System 135
Relating Approach and Avoidance Systems to Traits or Temperaments 136
The Role of Sociability 136
The Role of Impulsivity 137
Impulse, Constraint, Sensation Seeking, and Effortful Control 138
Functions of the Sensation-SeekingDimension 138
Relating IUSS to Traits or Temperaments 139
Two Sources of Impulse and Restraint 139
Neurotransmitters and Impulse versus Constraint 140
Hormones and Personality 142
Hormones, the Body, and the Brain 142
Early Hormonal Exposure and Behavior 143
Testosterone and Adult Personality 144
Cycle of Testosterone and Action 146
Testosterone, Dominance, and Evolutionary Psychology 147
Responding to Stress: Men,Women, and Oxytocin 148
Assessment 149
Electroencephalograms 149
Neuroimaging 150
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 151
Biological Bases of Anxiety, Depression, and Antisocial Personality 151
Medication in Therapy 152
Biological Processes and Personality: Problems and Prospects 153
Summary 154
Part Four: The Psychoanalytic Perspective:
Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 157
8 PSYCHOANALYTIC STRUCTURE AND
PROCESS 160
The Topographical Model of Mind 162
Aspects of Personality:The Structural
Model 163
Id 163
Ego 164
Superego 166
Balancing the Forces 167
Motivation:The Drives of Personality 167
Cathexes and the Use of Energy 169
Two Classes of Drives: Life and Death Instincts 170
Coming together of Libidinal and Aggressive Energies 170
Catharsis 171
Displacement and Sublimation of Motive Forces 172
Psychosexual Development 173
The Oral Stage 174
The Anal Stage 175
The Phallic Stage 176
The Latency Period 179
The Genital Stage 179
Psychoanalytic Structure and Process: Problems and Prospects 180
Summary 182
9 ANXIETY, DEFENSE, AND
SELF-PROTECTION 184
Anxiety 185
Mechanisms of Defense 185
Repression 186
Denial 187
Projection 188
Rationalization 189
Intellectualization 189
Reaction Formation 190
Regression 190
Identification 191
Displacement and Sublimation 191
Research on Defenses 191
Evidence of Unconscious Conflict 192
Exposing the Unconscious 193
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life 193
Dreams 195
Humor 197
Projective Techniques of Assessment 197
Rorschach Inkblot Test 198
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 200
Origins of Problems 200
Behavior Change 201
Does Psychoanalytic Therapy Work? 204
Psychoanalytic Defense: Problems and
Prospects 205
Summary 206
Part Five: The Neoanalytic Perspective:
Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 209
10 EGO PSYCHOLOGY 211
Principles of Ego Psychology 213
Shifting the Emphasis from the Id to the Ego 213
Adaptation and Autonomy 214
The Ego,Adaptation, and Competence Motivation 215
Is Competence Striving Automatic, or Is It Done to Remedy inferiority? 216
Ego Control and Ego Resiliency 217
Ego Control, Ego Resiliency, and the Five-Factor Model 220
Ego Development 220
Early Ego Development 221
Middle Stages of Ego Development: Control of Impulses 222
Advanced Stages of Ego Development:Taking Even More into Account 223
Research on Ego Development 224
Ego Development and the Five-Factor Model 226
Assessment 226
Assessment of Lifestyles 227
Assessment of Level of Ego Development 227
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 228
Inferiority and Superiority Complexes 228
Overcontrol and Undercontrol 230
Behavior Change 230
Ego Psychology: Problems and Prospects 230
Summary 232
11 PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES 234
Object Relations Theories 234
Self Psychology 236
Attachment Theory and Personality 237
Attachment Patterns in Adults 239
How Many Patterns? 240
Stability and Specificity 240
Other Reflections of Adult Attachment 241
Attachment Patterns and the Five-Factor Model 243
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development 243
Ego Identity, Competence, and the Experience of Crisis 244
Infancy 245
Early Childhood 245
Preschool 246
School Age 247
Adolescence 247
Young Adulthood 249
Adulthood 250
Old Age 251
The Epigenetic Principle 251
Identity as Life Story 252
Linking Erikson's Theory to Other Psychosocial Theories 253
Assessment 253
Object Relations,Attachment, and the Focus of Assessment 253
Play in Assessment 254
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 255
Narcissism as a Disorder of Personality 255
Basic Anxiety,Vicious Cycles, and Neurotic Needs 255
Attachment and Depression 257
Behavior Change 258
Psychosocial Theories: Problems and Prospects 259
Summary 259
Part Six: The Learning Perspective:
Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 263
12 CONDITIONING THEORIES 265
Classical Conditioning 266
Basic Elements 266
Classical Conditioning as Anticipatory Learning 267
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Classical Conditioning 268
Emotional Conditioning 270
Instrumental Conditioning 270
The Law of Effect 270
Reinforcement and Punishment 272
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning 273
Altering the Shape of Behavior 275
Schedules of Reinforcement 275
The Partial Reinforcement Effect 277
Learning Irrational Behavior 278
Reinforcement of Qualities of Behavior 279
Assessment 279
Techniques 280
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 281
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses 281
Additional Benefits 283
Classical Conditioning of Aversion 284
Conditioning and Context 284
Instrumental Conditioning and Maladaptive Behaviors 285
Instrumental Conditioning of Conflict 286
Instrumental Conditioning and Biofeedback 286
Conditioning Theories: Problems and Prospects 287
Summary 288
13 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING
THEORIES 291
Elaborations On Conditioning
Processes 292
Social Reinforcement 292
Vicarious Emotional Arousal 293
Vicarious Reinforcement 294
Semantic Generalization 295
Rule-Based Learning 295
Expectancies Concerning Outcomes 296
Locus-of-Control Expectancies 297
Efficacy Expectancies 299
Observational Learning 301
Acquisition versus Performance 303
Manifestations of Cognitive and Social
Learning 304
Modeling and Sex-Role Acquisition 304
Modeling of Aggression and the Issue of Media
Violence 306
Assessment 307
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior
Change 308
Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems 308
Modeling-Based Therapy for Skill Deficits 309
Modeling and Responses to Fear 311
Therapeutic Changes in Efficacy Expectancy 311
Self-instructions and Cognitive Behavioral Modification 313
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories: Problems and Prospects 314
Summary 315
Part Seven: The Phenomenological
Perspective: Major Themes and
Underlying Assumptions 319
14 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY:
SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND
SELF-DETERMINATION 321
Self-Actualization 322
The Need for Positive Regard 322
Contingent Self-Worth 324
Self-Determination 325
Introjection and Identification 325
Need for Relatedness 326
Self-Concordance 327
Free Will 327
The Self and Processes of Defense 328
Incongruity, Disorganization, and Defense 328
Self-Esteem Maintenance and Enhancement 329
Self-Handicapping 331
Stereotype Threat 331
Self-Actualization and Maslow's Hierarchy of
Motives 332
Characteristics of Frequent Self-Actualizers 334
Peak Experiences 336
Existential Psychology: Being and Death 337
The Existential Dilemma 337
Emptiness 338
Terror Management 338
Assessment 340
Interviews in Assessment 340
Measuring the Self-Concept by Q-Sort 341
Measuring Self-Actualization 342
Measuring Autonomy and Control 342
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 343
Client-Centered Therapy 344
Beyond Therapy to Personal Growth 345
Humanistic Theories: Problems and Prospects 345
Summary 347
15 PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS 350
Personal Constructs and Personality 351
Using Constructs 352
Constructs Are Bipolar 353
The Role of Recurrences 354
Range and Focus of Convenience 354
Elaboration and Change in Construct Systems 355
Organization among Constructs 356
Individuality of Constructs 357
Similarities and Differences between People 359
Role Taking 359
Personal Constructs and Behavioral Consistency 360
Assessment 361
Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test 361
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 362
Personal Constructs and Psychological Distress 363
Dealing with Anxiety and Threat 364
Fixed-Role Therapy 365
Personal Construct Theory: Problems and Prospects 366
Summary 367
Part Eight: The Cognitive Self-Regulation
Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying
Assumptions 369
16 CONTEMPORARY COGNITIVE VIEWS 372
Representing Your Experience Of The World 373
Schemas and Their Development 373
Effects of Schemas 373
Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory, and Scripts 374
Socially Relevant Schemas 375
Self-Schemas 375
Entity versus incremental Schemas 376
Attribution 377
Activation of Memories 378
Priming and the Use of Information 379
Nonconscious Influences on Behavior 380
Connectionist Views of Mental Organization 381
Dual-Process Models 383
Explicit and Implicit Knowledge 385
Broader Views On Cognition and Personality 386
Cognitive Person Variables 386
Personality as a Cognitive-Affective Processing System 388
Assessment 389
Think-Aloud, Experience Sampling, and Self-Monitoring 390
Contextualized Assessment 391
Diagnostic Categories as Fuzzy Sets 391
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 392
Information-Processing Deficits 392
Depressive Self-Schemas 392
Cognitive Therapy 394
Contemporary Cognitive Theories: Problems and Prospects 395
Summary 396
17 SELF-REGULATION 398
From Cognition to Behavior 399
Schemas and Actions 379
Intentions 399
Goals 400
Goal Setting 400
Implementation intentions and the Importance of Strategies 401
Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets 402
Self-Regulation and Feedback Control 402
Feedback Control 402
Self-Directed Attention and the Action of the Comparator 404
Hierarchical Organization 405
Issues Concerning Hierarchical Organization 407
Evidence of Hierarchies 407
Emotions 408
Effects of Expectancies: Effort versus Disengagement 409
Partial Disengagement 410
Further Themes in Self-Regulation 411
Approach and Avoidance 411
Intention-Based and Stimulus-Based Action 411
Self-Regulation As Self-Control 413
Assessment 414
Assessment of Self-Regulatory Qualities 414
Assessment of Goals 415
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 415
Problems as Conflicts among Goals and Lack of Strategy Specifications 415
Problems from an inability to Disengage 416
Self-Regulation and the Process of Therapy 417
Therapy is Training in Problem Solving 418
Self-Regulation Theories: Problems and Prospects 419
Summary 420
Part Nine: Personality in
Perspective 423
18 OVERLAP AND INTEGRATION 425
Similarities Among Perspectives 426
Psychoanalysis and Biology: Evolutionary Psychology and the Structural Model 426
Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology:Fixations and Mating Patterns 427
Psychoanalysis and Conditioning 428
Psychoanalysis and Self-Regulation: Hierarchy and the Structural Model 429
Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Processes 429
Social Learning and Cognitive Self-Regulation Views 431
Neoanalytic and Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspectives 433
Maslow's Hierarchy and Hierarchies of Self-Regulation 434
Self-Actualization and Self-Regulation 435
Dispositions and Their Equivalents in Other Models 435
Recurrent Themes,Viewed From Different Angles 435
Impulse and Restraint 436
Individual versus Group Needs 437
Combining Perspectives 437
Eclecticism 438
An Example: Biology and Learning as Complementary Influences on Personality 438
Which Theory Is Best? 439
Summary 440