One: Research Question, Terminology and Methodology.- 1: Introduction.- 1. An Introduction to the Basic Problems.- 2. Objectives of Research.- 2.1. Motivation.- 2.2. Legal Comparison.- 2.3. Delimitation.- 3. Practical Significance of Research.- 4. Inquiry Outline.- 2: Terminology.- 1. Possible Terminological Difficulties.- 2. Ownership and Property.- 2.1. Ideological Concept.- 2.2. Legal Concept.- 2.2.1. Private Law Terminology.- 2.2.2. Terminology of the Constitution.- 2.2.3. Terminology of Reform.- 2.2.4. Polarisation of the Private Law Property and Constitutional Property.- 3. Public Interest, Common Weal and Public Purposes.- 3.1. Public Interest and Common Weal in the Constitutional Context.- 3.2. Public Interest, Public Purposes and the Property Clauses.- 3.2.1. Public Interest, Public Purposes and Expropriation.- 3.2.2. Public Interest, Public Purposes and Land Reform.- 4. The Relationship between Property and Public Interest.- 3: Legal Comparison and the Course of Inquiry.- 1. Legal Comparison as Method of Analysis.- 2. Comparative Analysis as Constitutional Directive.- 3. Possibilities for Legal Comparison.- 4. Similarities in the German and South African Property Orders.- 4.1. Bases of the Legal Systems and their Material Law.- 4.2. Corresponding Legal Problems.- 4.3. Comparable Legal Methods.- 4.4. Constitutional Principles.- 5. Differences between the German and South African Systems of Property Law.- 5.1. Drafting Circumstances.- 5.2. Wording of South African and German Property Clauses.- 6. Course of Inquiry.- Two: Background to the Constitutional Protection of Property in Germany and South Africa.- 4: The Drafting Histories of the South African and German Constitutional Property Clauses.- 1. Relevance of an Historical Inquiry.- 2. Germany: Development of Property Protection Under a Constitution.- 2.1. Historical Background of article 14 GG.- 2.1.1. First Attempts at Constitutional Protection of Property.- 2.1.2. Property Protection in the Weimar Republic and Under National-Socialism.- 2.1.3. Circumstances Influencing the Drafting of article 14 GG.- 2.1.4. Constitutional Property Protection in a Reunified Germany.- 2.2. Relevance of article 14 GG for the German Property Order.- 3. South Africa: Negotiating a Constitutional Property Clause.- 3.1. Historical Background to the Property Clauses.- 3.1.1. The Inclusion of a Property Guarantee in the Constitution.- 3.1.2. Compromises Incorporated in Section 28 IC and Section 25 FC.- 3.1.3 Certification of Section 25 FC.- 3.2. Relevance of the Constitutional Property Clauses for the South African Property Order.- 4. Constitutionalism and Socio-economic Needs.- 5: Structure of the Constitutional Protection and Regulation of Property in Germany and South Africa.- 1. External Aspects of the Constitutional Property Clauses.- 2. Positive and Negative Guarantees.- 2.1. The German Property Guarantee.- 2.2 The South African Property Guarantees.- 2.2.1. Section 28 IC.- 2.2.2. Section 25 FC.- 2.3. Legal-comparative Evaluation.- 3. Basic Structure of an Inquiry into the Constitutional Property Clause.- 3.1. Structure of Human Rights Litigation in General.- 3.2. Substantive Issues Relating to the Property Clause.- 3.2.1. Claims Arising from the Constitutional Property Clause.- 3.2.1.1. The Claim to Have Property.- 3.2.1.2. Eligibility to Hold Property.- 3.2.1.3. Insulation of Private Property from State Interference.- 3.2.1.4. Immunity against Uncompensated Expropriation.- 3.2.2. Stages of Inquiries Based on the Constitutional Property Clause.- 3.2.2.1. Inquiries into the Constitutional Validity of an Interference with Property.- 3.2.2.1.1. Threshold Question.- 3.2.2.1.2. Infringement Question.- 3.2.2.1.3. Justifiability.- 3.2.2.2. Inquiries Regarding the Payment of Compensation.- 3.2.3. Summary: Object of Protection and Nature of Limitation.- 3.3. The Structure of the Judicial System and its Relevance for a Constitutional Property Inquiry.- 3.3.1. The South African Judicial Hierarcy and the Property Clause.- 3.3.2. Shared Jurisdiction in Property Issues within the German Judicial Hierarchy.- 4. Structure and Interpretation.- 6: Basic Principles of a Constitutional Order and Interpretation of a Constitutional Property Clause.- 1. Relevance of Constitutional Values for the Property Order.- 2. The Unity of the Constitution.- 2.1. Innere Einheit of the German Constitution.- 2.2. Conformity with the Constitution in South Africa.- 3. Principles Inherent in a Constitutional Order.- 3.1. Constitutional State (Rechtsstaat) and Rule of Law.- 3.1.1. The Rechtsstaat Concept in German law.- 3.1.1.1. Elements Comprising the Rechtsstaat Concept.- 3.1.1.2. Rechtsstaat and Property Under the German Basic Law.- 3.1.2. Constitutional State in South Africa.- 3.1.2.1 Latent Support of a Constitutional State in the Constitution.- 3.1.2.2 The Constitutional State Principle and Property in South Africa.- 3.2. Sozialstaat and Social Welfare State.- 3.2.1. The Sozialstaatsprinzip in Germany.- 3.2.1.1. Elements of the Sozialstaat.- 3.2.1.2. Sozialstaat and Constitutional Protection of Property.- 3.2.2. The Social Welfare State Principle in South Africa?.- 3.2.2.1. Constitutional Entrenchment of the Social Welfare State.- 3.2.2.2. Social Welfare State and the Protection of Property Rights.- 4. Social Welfare State, Constitutional State and Property Guarantee.- 5. Individual Freedom, Social Justice and Proportionality.- Three: The Constitutional Inquiry into Property Protection and its Relevance for the Existing Property Order.- 7: The Relevance of the Concept of Property for Protection Under Constitutional and Private Law.- 1. The Threshold Question.- 2. Ownership and Property in South Africa.- 2.1. Ownership and Property Under Private Law.- 2.1.1. General Structure of Ownership and Property Under Private Law.- 2.1.2. The Material Content of Ownership in Private Law.- 2.1.2.1. The Scope of Ownership.- 2.1.2.2. The Nature and Identity of Ownership.- 2.1.2.2.1. Characteristics of Ownership.- 2.1.2.2.2. Entitlements Pertaining to Ownership.- 2.1.2.3. Problems Arising from Attempts to Define the Content of Ownership.- 2.1.2.3.1. Ownership is more than a Sum of its Entitlements.- 2.1.2.3.2. The Seminal Characteristic of Ownership.- 2.1.2.3.3. The Absoluteness of Ownership.- 2.1.3. Limitations on the Content of Ownership.- 2.1.4. Import of Private Law for Property and Ownership in Constitutional Law.- 2.2. The Constitutional Concept of Property.- 2.2.1. Meaning of the Term Rights in Property.- 2.2.2. Interests Included in the Protective Ambit of Section 25 FC.- 2.2.2.1. Traditional Private Law Property Rights.- 2.2.2.2. Other Private Law and Commercial Rights.- 2.2.2.3. Benefits Granted by the State.- 2.2.2.3.1 Incorporeal Participation Rights.- 2.2.2.3.2. Rights Granted by the State and Based on Traditional Corporeal Property.- 2.2.3. The Nature of Property Under the Constitution.- 2.3. Evaluation.- 2.3.1. The Social Importance of Property for Purposes of Definition.- 2.3.2. Property and the Public Interest.- 3. Eigentum Under German Law.- 3.1. Eigentum in the German Civil Code.- 3.1.1. General Structure of Rights in rem Under the Civil Code.- 3.1.2. The Concept of Eigentum Under the Civil Code.- 3.1.2.1. Object of Ownership and Entitlements of the Owner.- 3.1.2.2. Limitations on the Right of Ownership.- 3.1.3. The Civil Code's Ownership Concept from the Perspective of the Basic Law.- 3.2. The Shift from a Private Law Based Concept of Property to a Purely Constitutional Meaning of Property.- 3.3. Eigentum in the German Basic Law.- 3.3.1. Property Interests Included in the Protective Ambit of Article 14 GG.- 3.3.1.1. Expanded Category of Private-law Rights and Patrimonial Interests.- 3.3.1.1.1. Incorporeal Assets.- 3.3.1.1.2. Development of Rights with Regard to Land.- 3.3.1.2. Public Law Rights and Benefits as Property in Terms of Article 14 GG.- 3.4. Evaluation: Property in the German Constitutional Order.- 3.4.1. Property and Development of the Social Order.- 3.4.2. Property and the Basic Constitutional Principles.- 3.4.3. Property as a Fundamental Right.- 3.4.4. Property as a Purely Constitutional Concept.- 4. The Continued Role of Private Law Ownership in the Constitutional Context?.- 8: Constitutional Limitations on Property Rights: Regulation, Expropriation and the Property Order.- 1. General Remarks.- 2. Limitation of Rights in General.- 2.1. Requirements for Limitation of Rights Under the Basic Law.- 2.1.1. Restriction Directly through Legislation.- 2.1.2. Restriction by Basic Rights Mutually.- 2.1.3. Internal Modifying Components.- 2.2. General Limitation of Rights in South Africa.- 2.2.1. The General Limitation Clause of the Final Constitution.- 2.2.2. Specific Limitations and Internal Modifying Components.- 2.2.3. Section 25 FC and the General Limitations-Clause, Specific Limitations and Internal Modifying Components.- 2.2.3.1. Classification of the Provisions in Section 25 FC.- 2.2.3.2. Interplay between Section 25 FC and Section 36 FC.- 2.2.3.3. Evaluation.- 3. Limitation through Vertical Application: Regulation and Expropriation of Property.- 3.1. Difference between Regulation of Property and Expropriation.- 3.2. The Justifiability of Limitations on Property Under German Law.- 3.2.1. By or Pursuant to a Law.- 3.2.1.1. Legalenteignung and Administrativenteignung.- 3.2.1.2. Limitation and Exercise of the Legislature's Ability to Limit Property Rights.- 3.2.2. Specific Requirement for Regulation of Property: Proportionality.- 3.2.2.1. Proportionality and the Property Clause.- 3.2.2.2. Proportionality and Balancing of Interests Under the Property Clause.- 3.2.2.3. Property, Legislative Structuring and Levels of Scrutiny.- 3.2.3. Specific Requirements for Expropriation of Property.- 3.2.3.1 Provision for Compensation (Junktimklausel).- 3.2.3.2. Expropriation in the Public Interest.- 3.2.3.3. Determination of Compensation.- 3.2.3.3.1. Balancing of Interests and Market Value.- 3.2.3.3.3.2. Consequences of Unconstitutional Legislation on Administrative Expropriation.- 3.2.3.3.3.3.The State's Discretion to Determine the Amount of Compensation.- 3.2.4. Institution of Property Retained (Essential Content).- 3.3. The German Judiciary's Methods of Establishing Type of Infringement.- 3.4. Justifiability of Limitations on Property Rights Under South African Law.- 3.4.1. Law of General Application (Not Permitting Arbitrary Deprivation).- 3.4.1.1. Meaning of in Accordance with Law / in Terms of Law.- 3.4.1.2. Meaning of Arbitrary Limitation.- 3.4.1.2.1. Lack of Criteria Governing the Exercise of the Deprivation.- 3.4.1.2.2. Rational Connection between Interference and Purpose.- 3.4.1.2.3. Procedural Safeguards.- 3.4.1.3. Conceptual Continuity of Deprivation and Expropriation?.- 3.4.2. Additional Requirements for Expropriation.- 3.4.2.1. Public Purpose / Public Interest.- 3.4.2.1.1. Public Interest and Racial Discrimination Under Apartheid.- 3.4.2.1.2. Different Applications of the Terms Public Purposes and Public Interest.- 3.4.2.1.3. The Inadequacy of Existing Judicial Precedent for Constitutional Interpretation.- 3.4.1.2.1.4. The Land Claims Court's Definition of Public Interest.- 3.4.2.2. Compensation.- 3.4.2.2.1. Compensation Agreed upon by the Affected Parties or Determined by Court.- 3.4.2.2.2. Taking into Account of All Relevant Circumstances.- 3.4.2.2.3. Expropriation without Compensation?.- 3.4.2.3. Additional Requirements from Judicial Precedent?.- 3.4.2.3.1. Appropriation by the Expropriator.- 3.4.2.3.2. Permanent Nature of Expropriation.- 3.4.3. Proportionality in Terms of the General Limitations Clause.- 3.4.3.1. Proportionality and the Limitation Clause.- 3.4.3.2. Proportionality and the Balancing of Interests.- 3.4.3.3. Application of the Proportionality Test in the South African Context.- 3.4.4. Maintenance of Essential Content Required?.- 3.4.4.1. The Essential Content Provision of the Interim Constitution.- 3.4.4.2. Consequence of Excluding the Essential Content Requirement from the Final Constitution.- 3.4.4.3. Implicit Adherence to the Essential Content Requirement?.- 3.5. The South African Judiciary's Attempts to Distinguish between Deprivation and Expropriation.- 3.5.1. Harksen v Lane NO.- 3.5.2. Conjunctive Reading, Interest-balancing and Proportionality.- 3.5.3. Constructive Expropriation.- 4. Limitation through Horizontal Application: the Conflicting Rights of Private Persons.- 4.1 German Drittwirkung and the Property Clause.- 4.2. Horizontality and the Property Clause in the South African Context.- 5. Effect of Constitutional Limitations on the Existing Property Order.- 5.1. Limitations, Private Autonomy and Public Interest.- 5.2. Limitations and Horizontal Operation of the Bill of Rights.- 5.3 Land Reform and Restitution as Limitation in the Public Interest.- Four: The Influence of Social Reform on Land Law in Germany and South Africa.- 9: Meaning of the Constitutional Objective of Land Reform for the South African Property Law.- 1. Background: Incentives for and Institutions of Reform.- 1.1. Problems Posed by the Existing Scheme of Landownership Law.- 1.2. The First Attempts at Reform.- 1.2.1. Reform between 1991 and 1993.- 1.2.2. Evaluation.- 1.2.2.1. The Continued Existence of Subordinate (Discriminating) Legislation.- 1.2.2.2. Social Restructuring.- 1.3. Constitutional Prerogative for the Overall Land Reform Programme.- 1.3.1. Commission on the Restitution of Land Rights.- 1.3.1.1. Functions and Activities.- 1.3.1.2. Interaction with the Land Claims Court.- 1.3.1.3. Influence on the Rights of Landowners.- 1.3.2. Creation and Functions of the Land Claims Court.- 1.3.2.1. Jurisdiction of the Court.- 1.3.2.2. Relevance of the Land Claims Court for Property Reform in South Africa.- 2. Legislation Shaping the Policy of Land Reform.- 2.1. Land Restitution (Restitution of Land Rights Act).- 2.1.1. Operation of the Restitution of Land Rights Act.- 2.1.1.1. Administrative Proceedings.- 2.1.1.2. Judicial Proceedings.- 2.1.2. Evaluation.- 2.1.2.1. The Extent to which Existing Rights have to Accommodate New Policies.- 2.1.2.2. Objectives and Character of Restitution Process.- 2.2. Land Redistribution.- 2.2.1. The Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act: an Example.- 2.2.1.1. Labour Tenancy Under Apartheid.- 2.2.1.2. Objectives and Operation of the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act.- 2.2.1.2.1. Qualifying Criteria for Labour Tenant Protection.- 2.2.1.2.2. Access to Land.- 2.2.1.2.3. Protection of Labour Tenants and Rights of Landowners.- 2.2.2. Evaluation.- 2.2.2.1. The Effects of the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act in Particular.- 2.2.2.2 Redistribution in General.- 2.3. Land Tenure Reform.- 2.3.1. Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act.- 2.3.2. Communal Properties Associations Act.- 2.3.3. Extension of Security of Tenure Act.- 2.3.3.1. Objectives and Application.- 2.3.2.1.1. Definition of Occupier.- 2.3.3.1.2. Long-term Security of Tenure.- 2.3.2.1.3. Protection against Eviction.- 2.3.3.2. Protection, Rights and Duties of Occupiers and Owners.- 2.3.4. Evaluation.- 2.4. Developments Pertaining to Land Administration and Regulation.- 2.4.1. Land Tax.- 2.4.2. Reconstruction and Development: Development Facilitation Act.- 2.4.3. Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act.- 3. Evaluation.- 3.1. Land Reform and the Paradigm Shift Induced by the New Constitutional Order.- 3.2. Land Reform, Public Purposes and the Concept of Property.- 3.2.1. Public Purposes.- 3.2.2. Ownership and Other (Lesser) Property Rights.- 3.3. Land Law Reform and the Constitution in Comparison.- 10: German Reunification and the Property Order.- 1. Background to the Property Questions Raised by Reunification.- 1.1. Property Order in the German Democratic Republic Before Reunification.- 1.2. Problems Posed for the Property Order due to Reunification.- 1.2.1. The Bodenreform and its Implications.- 1.2.2. Wiedergutmachung in the Federal Republic and its Implications.- 1.2.3. Expropriation Policy in German Democratic Republic.- 1.2.4. Administration of Emigrants' and Refugees' Property and its Implications.- 1.2.5. Business Property.- 2. Legislative Arrangements.- 2.1. Giving Legislative Effect to the Revision of the Property Order.- 2.1.1. Restitution Before Compensation.- 2.1.1.1. Restitution of Land.- 2.1.1.2. Restitution of Business Property.- 2.1.1.3. Procedure for Claiming Restitution.- 2.1.2. Exclusion of Restitution.- 2.1.2.1. Bodenreform Property.- 2.1.2.2. Bona Fide Transactions.- 2.1.2.3. Restitution Impossible.- 2.1.3. Special Arrangement for Wall Property.- 2.1.4. Investment Before Restitution.- 2.1.5. Compensation as Alternative to Restitution.- 2.2. Restitution and the Basic Law.- 3. The Treatment of the Restitution / Compensation Questions by the Courts.- 3.1. Federal Administrative Court.- 3.2. Federal Constitutional Court.- 4. Influence on the Reunification Property Issues on the Property Order in Germany.- 5. The Significance of the German Experience with Land Reform for South Africa.- Five: Conclusion.- 11: Property in Private Law and its Constitutional Protection and Regulation: Some Considerations.- 1. General Remarks.- 2. The Distinction between Property in Private and Constitutional Law.- 2.1. Property and Ownership.- 2.2. Function of Constitutional Law and Private Law with regard to Property.- 3. Property, Economic Growth and Empowerment.- 3.1. A Framework for Legal Reform: Liberalism and Social Democracy.- 3.2. Property, Individuals and the General Public.- 4. Property, Interference, Proportionality and Balancing of Interests.- 5. Land Law Reform and the Balancing of Interests as Example.- 6. The Way Forward?.- Summary.- Afrikaanse Opsomming.
