Editorial introduction.- General bibliography.- References.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Characteristics of the industry.- 1.2 Scale of operations.- 1.3 Major chemical producing countries.- 1.4 Major sectors and their products.- 1.5 Turning chemicals into useful end products.- 1.6 Environmental issues.- 1.6.1 Flixborough.- 1.6.2 Minamata Bay (Japan).- 1.6.3 Thalidomide and drugs.- 1.6.4 Seveso, Bhopal and pesticides.- 1.6.5 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).- 2 Sources of chemicals.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Sources of organic chemicals.- 2.2.1 Organic chemicals from oil and natural gas.- 2.2.2 Organic chemicals from coal.- 2.2.3 Organic chemicals from carbohydrates (biomass).- 2.2.4 Organic chemicals from animal and vegetable oils and fats.- 2.3 Sources of inorganic chemicals.- 2.4 Recycling of materials.- References.- 3 The world's major chemical industries.- 3.1 History and development of the chemical industry.- 3.1.1 Origins of the chemical industry.- 3.1.2 Inter-war years, 1918-1939.- 3.1.3 Second World War period, 1939-1945.- 3.1.4 Post-1945 period.- 3.2 The chemical industry today.- 3.2.1 Definition of the chemical industry.- 3.2.2 The need for a chemical industry.- 3.2.3 The major chemicals.- 3.3 The United Kingdom chemical industry.- 3.3.1 Comparison with other U.K. manufacturing industries.- 3.3.2 International comparisons in the chemical industry.- 3.3.3 Major locations of the U.K. chemical industry.- 3.3.4 Some major U.K. chemical companies.- 3.4 The U.S. chemical industry.- 3.5 Other chemical industries.- 3.5.1 Japan.- 3.5.2 West Germany.- 3.5.3 France.- 3.5.4 Italy.- 3.5.5 Netherlands.- 3.6 World's major chemical companies.- 3.7 General characteristics and future of the chemical industry.- 3.7.1 General characteristics.- 3.7.2 The future.- References.- 4 Organization and finance.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Structure of a company.- 4.2.1 Company board functions.- 4.2.2 Operating divisions.- 4.2.3 Divisional structures.- 4.3 Organization of R&D.- 4.3.1 Long-term activities.- 4.3.2 Shorter term-process R&D.- 4.3.3 Shorter term-product R&D.- 4.3.4 Evaluating results of R&D.- 4.3.5 Financing R&D activities.- 4.3.6 Links with other functions.- 4.4 Production organization.- 4.4.1 Management structure.- 4.4.2 Plant management and operation.- 4.4.3 Engineering function.- 4.4.4 Links with other functions.- 4.5 Marketing.- 4.5.1 Role of marketing.- 4.5.2 Short-term sales plans.- 4.5.3 Long-term sales plans.- 4.5.4 Market R&D.- 4.5.5 Links with other functions.- 4.6 Sources of finance.- 4.6.1 Internal sources of finance.- 4.6.2 External finance.- 4.6.3 Financial structure.- 4.7 Multinationals.- 4.7.1 Growth of multinationals.- 4.7.2 Reasons for development.- References.- 5 Technological economics.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Cost of producing a chemical.- 5.3 Variable costs.- 5.3.1 Raw material costs.- 5.3.2 Energy input costs.- 5.3.3 Royalty/licence payments.- 5.3.4 Effect of production rate on variable cost.- 5.3.5 Packaging and transport.- 5.4 Fixed costs.- 5.4.1 Labour charges.- 5.4.2 Depreciation.- 5.4.3 Rates and insurance.- 5.4.4 Overhead charges.- 5.5 Direct, indirect and capital related costs.- 5.6 Profit.- 5.7 Effects of scale of operation.- 5.7.1 Variable costs.- 5.7.2 Fixed costs.- 5.7.3 Plant capital.- 5.8 Effect of low rate operation.- 5.8.1 Break-even production rate.- 5.9 Diminishing return.- 5.10 Absorption costing and marginality.- 5.11 Measuring profitability.- 5.11.1 Return on investment.- 5.11.2 Use of inflated capital-current cost accounting.- 5.11.3 Payback time.- 5.11.4 Equivalent maximum investment period.- 5.12 Time value of money.- 5.12.1 Net present value and discounted cash flow.- 5.12.2 Discounted cash flow return.- 5.12.3 Use of NPV and DCF as profitability measures.- 5.13 Project evaluation.- 5.13.1 Comparison of process variable costs.- 5.13.2 Estimation of plant capital.- 5.13.3 Process cost comparison.- 5.13.4 Estimating markets/prices.- 5.13.5 Effects of uncertainty.- 5.14 Conclusion.- Appendix (D.C.F. calculations).- References.- 6 Chemical engineering.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Material balances.- 6.2.1 The flowsheet.- 6.2.2 General balance equation.- 6.2.3 Material balance techniques.- 6.2.4 Multiple unit balances.- 6.2.5 Chemical reactions.- 6.3 Energy balances.- 6.3.1 Energy balance equations.- 6.3.2 Estimation of enthalpy changes.- 6.3.3 Reactive systems.- 6.3.4 Energy balance techniques.- 6.4 Fluid flow.- 6.4.1 Types of fluid.- 6.4.2 Flow regimes.- 6.4.3 Balance equations.- 6.4.4 Flow in pipes.- 6.5 Heat transfer.- 6.5.1 Mechanisms.- 6.5.2 Shell and tube heat exchangers Separation processes.- 6.6.1 Characteristics of separation processes.- 6.6.2 Phase equilibria.- 6.6.3 Binary distillation.- 6.7 Process control.- 6.7.1 Objectives of process control.- 6.7.2 The control loop.- 6.7.3 Measuring devices.- 6.7.4 The controller.- 6.7.5 Final control element.- 6.7.6 Computer control.- References.- 7 Energy.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Energy required by the chemical industry.- 7.1.2 Sources of energy.- 7.1.3 Properties of fuels.- 7.1.4 Cost of energy.- 7.2 Types of energy.- 7.2.1 Power requirements for fluid flow.- 7.2.2 Variation in energy content requirement.- 7.3 Use of energy in the chemical industry.- 7.3.1 Reaction energy.- 7.3.2 Preparation and separation of energy.- 7.3.3 Heat transfer media.- 7.4 Efficient utilization of energy.- 7.4.1 Exothermic reactions.- 7.4.2 Separation processes.- 7.4.3 Restriction of losses.- 7.5 Conclusions.- References.- 8 Environmental pollution control.- 8.1 Technology and pollution.- 8.1.1 Air pollution.- 8.1.2 Water pollution.- 8.2 Methods of pollution control.- 8.2.1 Elimination of effluent at source.- 8.2.2 Reduction of effluent volume.- 8.2.3 Water re-use and recovery of materials.- 8.2.4 Physical, chemical and biological methods of treatment.- 8.3 Economics of pollution control.- 8.3.1 Treatment plant/processes.- 8.3.2 Disposal into sewers.- 8.3.3 Recovery of materials.- 8.4 Industrial health and hygiene.- 8.4.1 Introduction.- 8.4.2 Health hazards.- 8.4.3 Industrial medicine.- 8.5 Legislation.- 8.5.1 U.K. legislation.- 8.5.2 U.S. legislation.- 8.5.3 EEC legislation.- 8.5.4 Responsibility.- 8.5.5 Effects of legislation and standards.- 8.6 Environmental topics.- 8.6.1 Acid rain.- 8.6.2 Ozone depletion.- 8.6.3 Carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect.- References.- 9 Chlor-alkali products.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Uses of chlorine.- 9.3 Uses of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide).- 9.4 Uses of hydrogen.- 9.5 Types of cell.- 9.5.1 Mercury cell process.- 9.5.2 Diaphragm cell process.- 9.5.3 Membrane cell process.- 9.6 Future developments.- 10 Catalysts and catalysis.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Definitions and constraints.- 10.2.1 Essential features.- 10.2.2 Initiators.- 10.2.3 Co-reactants.- 10.2.4 Inhibition.- 10.3 Thermodynamic relationships.- 10.3.1 Application.- 10.3.2 Effect of total pressure.- 10.3.3 Rough calculations.- 10.3.4 Thermodynamic traps.- 10.4 Homogeneous catalysis.- 10.4.1 General features.- 10.4.2 Catalyst life and poisons.- 10.4.3 Limitations.- 10.5 Heterogenization of homogeneous catalytic systems.- 10.6 Heterogeneous catalysis.- 10.6.1 Introduction.- 10.6.2 Major (primary) and minor (secondary) components.- 10.6.3 Operational modes.- 10.6.4 Chemisorption and active sites.- 10.6.5 Physical forms and their preparation.- 10.6.6 Support interactions.- 10.6.7 Catalyst structure.- 10.6.8 General kinetic behaviour.- 10.6.9 Catalyst deactivation and life.- 10.6.10 Studies on surface chemistry.- 10.6.11 Theoretical approaches.- 10.7 Applications and mechanisms.- 10.7.1 Introduction.- 10.7.2 Acid catalysis.- 10.7.3 Hydrogenation.- 10.7.4 Dual-function catalysis.- 10.7.5 Olefin (alkene) polymerization and dismutation on metals.- 10.7.6 Base catalysis.- 10.7.7 Oxidations.- 10.7.8 Carbon monoxide chemistry.- 10.8 The future.- References.- 11 Petrochemicals.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.1.1 Layout.- 11.1.2 The beginnings.- 11.1.3 Into the 70s.- 11.1.4 The present.- 11.1.5 Individual feedstocks and routes.- 11.2 Crude oil, gas and refinery operations.- 11.2.1 Crude oil and natural gas.- 11.2.2 Refinery operations.- 11.2.3 Energy consumption.- 11.3 Lower olefins (alkenes) and acetylene (ethyne).- 11.3.1 Cracking processes.- 11.3.2 Energy balances and economics.- 11.3.3 Lower olefins (alkenes) versus acetylene (ethyne).- 11.3.4 Polyethylene (polyethene) and polypropylene (polypropene).- 11.3.5 Production and use statistics.- 11.4 Synthesis gas, ammonia and methanol.- 11.4.1 Process descriptions.- 11.4.2 Energy balances and economics.- 11.4.3 Urea (carbamide), formaldehyde (methanal), amino resins and polyacetal.- 11.4.4 Production and use statistics.- 11.5 Acetic (ethanoic) acid and anhydride.- 11.5.1 Acetic acid production.- 11.5.2 Acetic anhydride production.- 11.5.3 Production and use statistics.- 11.6 C1 products.- 11.6.1 Formic (methanoic) acid and derivatives.- 11.6.2 Hydrogen cyanide.- 11.6.3 Chloromethanes.- 11.7 C2 products.- 11.7.1 Ethanol.- 11.7.2 Acetaldehyde (ethanal).- 11.7.3 Ethylene oxide (oxirane) and glycol (ethane-1, 2-diol).- 11.7.4 Vinyl acetate (ethenyl ethanoate).- 11.7.5 Choroethylenes (chloroethenes) and choroethanes.- 11.8 C3 products.- 11.8.1 Isopropanol (2-propanol) and acetone (propanone).- 11.8.2 Propylene oxide (1-methyloxirane) and glycol (propane-1, 2-diol).- 11.8.3 Acrylonitrile (propenonitrile).- 11.8.4 Acrylates and acrolein (propenal).- 11.8.5 Allylic (propenyl) derivatives.- 11.8.6 n-Propanol, propionaldehyde (propanal) and propionic (propanoic) acid.- 11.9 C4 products.- 11.9.1 Butenes and butadiene.- 11.9.2 Sec-butanol (2-butanol) and methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone).- 11.9.3 Tert-butanol.- 11.9.4 Maleic anhydride (cis-butanedioic anhydride).- 11.9.5 Chloroprene (2-chlorobuta-l, 3-diene).- 11.9.6 Methacrylates (2-methylpropenoates).- 11.9.7 Butyraldehydes (butanals) and primary butanols.- 11.9.8 C4 diols and related products.- 11.10 C5 aliphatics.- 11.10.1 Isoprene (2-methylbuta-l, 3-diene).- 11.10.2 Plasticizer alcohols.- 11.10.3 Detergent intermediates.- 11.11 Aromatics.- 11.11.1 Hydrocarbons.- 11.11.2 Phenol.- 11.11.3 Benzyls.- 11.11.4 Nitro-compounds and amines.- 11.11.5 Phthalic (benzene-1, 2-dicarboxylic) anhydride.- 11.11.6 Terephthalic (benzene-1, 4-dicarboxylic) acid.- 11.12 Nylon intermediates.- 11.13 The future.- 11.13.1 The products.- 11.13.2 Future raw materials and production routes.- References.- Periodical special issues and supplements.